Overview of Indian History
| Category | Description |
| Definition of History | Derived from the Greek word “Historia,” meaning inquiry or knowledge gained through research. It involves studying past events, collecting information, organizing, presenting, and interpreting them. |
| Divisions of History | Divided into Prehistory, Protohistory, and History. |
| Prehistory | Refers to events before the invention of writing. Represented by the three Stone Ages. |
| Protohistory | The period between prehistory and history, where a culture is not yet developed but is mentioned in literate civilizations’ records (e.g., Harappan script is undeciphered but referenced in Mesopotamian texts). |
| History | Study of the past based on written records and archaeological sources after the invention of writing. |
Sources of Ancient Indian History
| Source Type | Examples | |
| Non-Literary Sources |
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Coins, Archaeology, Inscriptions, Foreign Accounts |
| Literary Sources |
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Religious Texts (Vedas, Epics, Buddhist/Jain Texts), Secular Texts (Dharmashastras, Arthashastra, Sangam Literature) |
Non-Literary Sources
| Source | Details | ||
| Coins (Numismatics) |
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Early coins were punch-marked (silver/copper). Later coins had kings, gods, and dates inscribed. Helped reconstruct dynasties (e.g., Indo-Greeks). | |
| Archaeology | Systematic excavation of mounds reveals material remains (e.g., Harappan sites, megaliths in South India). Pollen analysis helps study climate. | ||
| Inscriptions (Epigraphy) | Rock/copper inscriptions record victories, royal orders, and administrative policies (e.g., Ashoka’s edicts, Satavahana land grants). | ||
| Foreign Accounts | Greek (Megasthenes’ Indica), Chinese (Fa-Hien, Hiuen-Tsang), Roman (Periplus of the Erythraean Sea). | ||
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Literary Sources
| Type | Examples | ||
| Religious Texts | Vedas (1500–500 BCE), Upanishads, Mahabharata, Ramayana, Buddhist
Tripitaka, Jain Angas. |
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| Secular Texts | Dharmashastras, Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Kalidasa’s works, Rajatarangini,
Sangam Literature. |
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Prehistoric India: Stone Ages
| Period | Time Frame |
|
Tools/Technology | Lifestyle | Key Sites | Significance |
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| Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) | 500,000–10,000 BCE |
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– Hand axes, cleavers (quartzite) – No fire initially |
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– Hunter-gatherers – Nomadic, cave dwellers |
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Bhimbetka (MP), Sohan Valley (Pakistan), Belan Valley (UP) | Earliest human settlements in India |
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| Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) | 10,000–6,000 BCE |
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– Microliths (tiny stone blades) – Bone tools |
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– Semi-nomadic – Domesticationof dogs – Rock art (Bhimbetka) |
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Bagor (Rajasthan), Adamgarh (MP), Langhnaj (Gujarat) | Transition to settled life |
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| Neolithic (New Stone Age) | 6,000–1,000 BCE |
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– Polished stone axes – Pottery (handmade → wheel-made) |
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– Agriculture (wheat, barley) – Permanent mud houses |
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Mehrgarh (Pakistan), Burzahom (Kashmir), Chirand (Bihar) | Beginning of farming communities |
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| Chalcolithic
(Copper Age) |
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3,000–500 BCE |
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– Copper + stone tools – Black-and-red pottery |
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– Rural settlements – Trade with Harappans |
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Ahar (Rajasthan), Daimabad (Maharashtra), Kayatha (MP) | Transition to metal use |
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Vedic Period (1500–600 BCE)
| Phase | Time Frame | Polity | Economy | Religion | Texts | ||
| Early Vedic (Rigvedic) | 1500–1000 BCE | – Tribal (Janas) – Sabha/Samiti councils |
|
– Pastoral (cows = wealth) – Barter system |
– Nature worship (Indra, Agni) |
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Rigveda |
| Later Vedic | 1000–600 BCE | – Kingdoms (Mahajanapadas) – Hereditary monarchy |
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– Agriculture (iron plough) – Trade (coins later) |
– Rituals (Yajnas) – Upanishads (philosophy) |
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Yajur, Sama, Atharvaveda |
Iron Age & Later Periods
| Period | Features | Key Developments | |
| Iron Age (1500–200 BCE) | Introduction of iron tools, urbanization. |
|
Vedic culture, Mahajanapadas. |
| Aryan Migration | Composition of Vedas, early Hinduism. |
|
Rigvedic society, caste system. |
| Jainism & Buddhism | Rise of heterodox religions. | Teachings of Mahavira & Buddha. | |
| Mahajanapadas | 16 major kingdoms. | Magadha’s dominance, Mauryan Empire. | |
| Iron Age & Mahajanapadas (600–300 BCE)
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Major Protohistoric & Historic Cultures
| Culture | Period | Significance | |
| Harappan Civilization | 2600–1900 BCE | Urban planning, undeciphered script. | |
| Vedic Culture | 1500–600 BCE | Oral traditions, early Hinduism. | |
| Mauryan Empire | 322–185 BCE | Ashoka’s edicts, spread of Buddhism. | |
| Gupta Empire | 320–550 CE | Golden Age, Sanskrit literature. |
Foreign Accounts
| Traveler/Text | Origin | Period | Observations | |||
| Megasthenes (Indika) | Greek
(Mauryan) |
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4th c. BCE | Describes Chandragupta’s administration |
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| Fa-Hien | Chinese | 5th c. CE | Gupta Empire’s prosperity | |||
| Hiuen-Tsang | Chinese | 7th c. CE | Harsha’s reign & Nalanda University |
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Religious Movements
| Religion | Founder | Key Texts | Impact | |
| Jainism | Mahavira | Agamas | – Ahimsa – Influence on trade guilds |
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| Buddhism | Buddha | Tripitaka | – Spread via Mauryas – Stupas/viharas |
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