Indian Polity-Evolution of Indian Constitution

 

Constitutional Development – East India Company Rule (1773 – 1857) Act	Key Provisions
Regulating Act (1773)	– First British Parliament Act to regulate EIC affairs. – Governor of Bengal became Governor-General (Warren Hastings). – Governors of Bombay & Madras made subordinate to Bengal. – Governor-General assisted by 4-member Council. – Established Supreme Court in Calcutta (1774).
Pitt’s India Act (1784)	– EIC territories termed “British Possessions in India.” – Dual governance: Crown (political) & Company (commercial). – Created Board of Control (6 members) for political affairs. – Reduced Governor-General’s Council to 3 members. – Established Governors’ Councils in Bombay & Madras.
Charter Act (1813)	– Ended EIC’s trade monopoly (except tea). – Opened trade to all British citizens.
Charter Act (1833)	– Governor-General of Bengal became Governor-General of India (Lord Bentick). – EIC became purely administrative (no commercial role). – Final step in centralization (started in 1773).
Charter Act (1853)	– Introduced competitive Civil Service Exams. – Separated executive & legislative functions. – Added 6 members to Legislative Council (4 from provinces). – Central Legislative Council functioned as a “Mini-Parliament.”

 

Constitutional Development – British Crown Rule (1858–1947)

 

Act/Reform	Key Provisions
Government of India Act (1858)	–  Ended EIC rule; transferred power to British Crown. –  Secretary of State for India + 15-member Council established. –  Governor-General became Viceroy (Lord Canning).
Indian Councils Act (1861)	–  First Indian non-official members in Legislative Council. –  Restored legislative powers to Bombay & Madras. –  Established Councils in Punjab, Bengal, NWFP.
Indian Councils Act (1892)	–  Expanded Legislative Council size. –  Introduced indirect elections & budget discussions.
Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)	–  First direct elections. –  Separate electorates for Muslims (communal representation).

Act/Reform	Key Provisions
	– Indians appointed to Viceroy’s Executive Council                     (Satyendra Sinha).
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919)	–  Introduced bicameral legislature. –  Dyarchy in provinces: Reserved (central control) & Transferred (local ministers) lists. –  Limited franchise (tax/property-based). –  Public Service Commission established.
Government of India Act (1935)	–  Federal structure: Federal, Provincial, Concurrent Lists. –  Abolished provincial Dyarchy; introduced autonomy. –  Proposed All-India Federation (never implemented). –  Established RBI & Federal Court.
Cripps Mission (1942)	–  Proposed dominion status post-WW2. –  Rejected by Indian leaders.
Cabinet Mission (1946)	–  Proposed united India with a Constituent Assembly (389 members). –  Interim government with 14 leaders.
Indian Independence Act (1947)	–  Partition into India & Pakistan (15 Aug 1947). –  Full power to Constituent Assembly.

 

            Drafting committee

 

Committees of the Constituent Assembly

Category	Number of Committees
Major Committees	8
Minor Committees	14
Total	22

Major Committees of the Constituent Assembly

Committee Name	Chairman
Drafting Committee	Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
Provincial Constitution Committee	Vallabhbhai Patel
Union Constitution Committee	Jawaharlal Nehru
Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights	Vallabhbhai Patel
Committee on Minorities and Tribal and Excluded Areas	Vallabhbhai Patel
Union Powers Committee	Jawaharlal Nehru
Steering Committee	Rajendra Prasad
Rules of Procedure Committee	Rajendra Prasad

 

Minor Committees of the Constituent Assembly

Committee Name	Chairman
Ad hoc Committee on the National Flag	Rajendra Prasad
Committee on the Functions of the Constituent Assembly	G.V. Mavalankar
Special Committee to Examine the Draft Constitution	Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar
Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas Sub-Committee	A.V. Thakkar
Finance and Staff Committee	Rajendra Prasad
Fundamental Rights Sub-Committee	J.B. Kripalani
House Committee	B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya
Minorities Sub-Committee	H.C. Mukherjee
North-East Frontier Tribal Areas and Assam Sub-Committee	Gopinath Bardoloi
Order of Business Committee	K.M. Munshi
States Committee	Jawaharlal Nehru
Language Committee	Moturi Satyanarayana

 

Drafting Committee Members

Member	Notes
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (Chairman)
N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar
Muhammad Saadullah
Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar
K.M. Munshi
B.L. Mittar	Resigned due to health issues; replaced by N. Madhava Rao
Dr. D.P. Khaitan	Died in 1948; replaced by T.T. Krishnamachari

Women Members of the Constituent Assembly

Name	Contributions
Ammu Swaminathan	Advocated for Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy.
Annie Mascarene	Worked on the Hindu Code Bill and assisted Sardar Patel in unifying India.
Begum Aizaz Rasul	Only Muslim woman member of the Assembly.
Dakshayani Velayudan	First SC woman graduate; advocated for Dalit rights.
G. Durgabai	Only woman on the panel of chairmen of the Assembly.
Hansa Mehta	Advocated for women’s rights; contributed to the UN Declaration of Human Rights.
Purnima Banerji	Opposed the term “sovereign” in the Preamble.
Renuka Ray	Worked on the Hindu Code Bill, focusing on women’s equality.
Sarojini Naidu	Governor of the United Provinces.
Sucheta Kripalani	First woman Chief Minister (UP); drafted parts of the Constitution.
Vijayalakshmi Pandit	First woman ambassador (USSR).
Rajkumari Amrit Kaur	First woman Health Minister; founded AIIMS and Lady Irwin College.
Malati Chowdhury	Emphasized education for national development.
Leela Ray	Worked for Hindu-Muslim unity and women’s empowerment.
Kamla Chaudhri	Advocated for women’s education and empowerment.

 

Key Facts About the Constituent Assembly

Aspect	Details
Total Members (Pre-Partition)	389
Total Members (Post-Partition)	299
Elected from Provinces	292
From Princely States	93
From Chief Commissioner Provinces	4
First Meeting	December 9, 1946 (Interim President: Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha)
First Elected President	Dr. Rajendra Prasad (December 11, 1946)
Vice President	Harendra Coomar Mookerjee

 

 Language Committee Recommendations

• Recommended Hindi in Devanagari script as the official language.
• Proposed a 15-year transition period for English usage.
• Allowed provinces to choose one regional language for official use.

            Preamble to the Indian Constitution

                     Meaning and Significance of the Preamble to the Indian Constitution

Aspect	Description
Definition	The Preamble is the introduction or preface to the Constitution, summarizing its essence, ideals, and aspirations.
Jurist Opinions	– N.A. Palkhivala: Called it the “Identity Card of the Constitution.” – K.M. Munshi: Described it as the “Political Horoscope of the Constitution.”

Historical Background of the Preamble

Event	Details
Objective Resolution	Moved by Jawaharlal Nehru on December 13, 1946, defining the goals of the Constitution.
Adoption as Preamble	Adopted on January 22, 1947, as the guiding principle for framing the Constitution.

 

Text of the Preamble

“We, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens:

• JUSTICE, Social, Economic, and Political;
• LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith, and worship;
• EQUALITY of status and opportunity;
• FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation.
  In Our Constituent Assembly, this 26th day of November 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT, and GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.”

Features of the Preamble

Feature	Description
Philosophy & Objectives	Outlines India’s commitment to Sovereignty, Socialism, Secularism, Democracy, Justice, Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.
Role	Acts as the soul and guiding principle of the Constitution, reflecting the people’s aspirations.
Legal Status	Integral part of the Constitution (as held in the Kesavananda Bharati case, 1973).

Components of the Preamble

Component	Explanation
Source of Authority	The Constitution derives its power from “We, the People of India.”
Nature of Indian State	Declares India as a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic.
Objectives	Justice, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.
Date of Adoption	November 26, 1949.

Key Words in the Preamble & Their Meanings

Keyword	Meaning
“We, the People of India”	– Constitution derives authority from citizens. – Reflects popular sovereignty and collective will.
Sovereign	– India is independent (internally & externally). – Free to govern without foreign interference.
Socialist	– Equitable distribution of wealth. – Mix of public & private sectors (Democratic Socialism).
Secular	– No state religion. – Equal respect for all religions.
Democratic	– Government by the people, through elections. – Ensures political, social, and economic democracy.
Republic	– Elected head of state (no monarchy). – No privileged classes; equal opportunity for all.
Justice	– Social (no discrimination), Economic (fair wealth distribution), Political (equal rights).
Liberty	– Freedom of thought, expression, belief, faith, worship (with reasonable restrictions).
Equality	– No discrimination based on caste, religion, gender, etc. – Equal opportunities in civic, political & economic spheres.
Fraternity	– Unity & integrity of the nation. – Respect for individual dignity.

Significance of the Preamble

Role	Importance
Moral Compass	Guides policymakers to uphold justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity.
Interpretation Aid	Helps courts interpret ambiguous constitutional provisions.
National Unity	Promotes pluralism, secularism, and social harmony.
Citizen Empowerment	Reminds people of their rights, duties, and responsibilities.

 

Comparison of Preamble with Objective Resolution

Aspect	Objective Resolution (1946)	Preamble (1949)
Purpose	Drafted to guide Constitution-making.	Adopted as the introductory statement of the Constitution.
Key Terms	Included justice, liberty, equality.	Added “Secular, Socialist, Republic” (via 42nd Amendment, 1976).
Legal Status	Non-binding resolution.	Part of the Constitution (enforceable in spirit).

Salient Features of the  Constitution

Feature	Description
1. Lengthiest Written Constitution	– Longest in the world (detailed & comprehensive). – Reasons: • Vast geographical & cultural diversity. • Influence of Government of India Act, 1935. • Single constitution for Centre & States. • Includes justiciable (FRs) and non-justiciable (DPSP) provisions.
2. Drawn from Various Sources	– Structural part: Govt. of India Act, 1935. – Philosophical part: • Fundamental Rights (USA). • DPSP (Ireland). – Political part: Parliamentary system (UK).
3. Blend of Rigidity & Flexibility	– Flexible: Simple majority amendments (e.g., citizenship laws). – Rigid: Special majority + state ratification (e.g., federal provisions).
4. Federal System with Unitary Bias	– Federal features: • Dual govt., division of powers, independent judiciary. – Unitary features: • Strong Centre, single citizenship, All-India Services. – Described as “Quasi-Federal” (K.C. Wheare).
5. Parliamentary Form of Government	– Features: • Real (PM) & nominal (President) executives. • Collective responsibility of Council of Ministers. • Bicameral legislature (Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha).
6. Synthesis of Parliamentary Sovereignty & Judicial Supremacy	– Judicial Review (SC can strike down laws). – Parliamentary Sovereignty (Can amend most parts of the Constitution).
7. Rule of Law	– Equality before law (Article 14). – No arbitrariness in governance. – Judicial safeguards via PILs & Lok Adalats.
8. Integrated & Independent Judiciary	– Single integrated system (SC → HCs → Subordinate Courts). – Judicial independence: Security of tenure, fixed salaries.
9. Fundamental Rights (Part III)	– 6 FRs: Right to Equality, Freedom, Against Exploitation, Religion, Constitutional Remedies, Education & Culture. – Justiciable (enforceable by courts).
10. Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV)	– Non-justiciable but fundamental for governance. – Aim: Welfare state (e.g., equal pay, free education).
11. Fundamental Duties (42nd Amendment)	– 11 Duties (e.g., respect Constitution, national flag, environment). – Non-justiciable but morally binding.
12. Indian Secularism	– Positive secularism: Equal respect for all religions. – No state religion; bans communal representation (except SCs/STs).
13. Universal Adult Franchise	– Voting rights to all citizens ≥18 years (Article 326). – Ensures political equality.
14. Single Citizenship	– Only Indian citizenship (no state citizenship). – Promotes national unity.
15. Independent Bodies	– Election Commission, CAG, UPSC, etc. – Ensure democratic checks & balances.
16. Emergency Provisions	– 3 Types: • National (Art. 352). • State (President’s Rule, Art. 356). • Financial (Art. 360). – Converts federal system to unitary during emergency.
17. Three-tier Government (73rd & 74th Amendments)	– Local self-governance: • Panchayats (Rural). • Municipalities (Urban).
18. Co-operative Societies (97th Amendment)	– Constitutional status to cooperatives (Art. 19, 43-B, Part IX-B). – Ensures democratic functioning.

            Philosophy of the Constitution

Principle	Constitutional Reflection
Secularism	Equal respect for all religions (42nd Amendment added “Secular” to Preamble).
Democracy	Periodic elections, universal suffrage, rule of law.
Sarvodaya	Welfare of all (DPSP: Art. 38, 39, 41).
Socialism	Equitable wealth distribution (DPSP + 42nd Amendment).
Humanism	International peace (Art. 51).
Decentralization	Panchayati Raj (Art. 40, 73rd Amendment).
Gandhism	Village upliftment, prohibition, cottage industries (DPSP).

Comparative Table: Indian vs. Other Constitutions

Aspect	Indian Constitution	Other Constitutions
Length	Longest (448 Articles, 12 Schedules).	USA: Brief (7 Articles).
Federalism	Quasi-federal (strong Centre).	USA: Strict federalism.
Citizenship	Single citizenship.	USA: Dual citizenship.
Amendment	Flexible + Rigid procedures.	UK: Fully flexible.
Secularism	Positive secularism.	France: Negative secularism (Laïcité).

Landmark Judgments on Basic Structure Doctrine

Case	Year	Key Ruling	Impact on Basic Structure Doctrine
Shankari Prasad Case	1951	Parliament can amend Fundamental Rights (FRs) under Article 368.	Established Parliament’s absolute amending power.
Sajjan Singh Case	1965	Reiterated Parliament’s power to amend any part of the Constitution, including FRs.	Two dissenting judges questioned if FRs could be overridden by parliamentary majority.
Golaknath Case	1967	Reversed earlier rulings: FRs cannot be amended. – Article 368 only provides procedure, not power to amend. – FRs have a “transcendental position”.	Introduced implied limitations on Parliament’s amending power.
Kesavananda Bharati Case	1973	Parliament can amend the Constitution but cannot alter its “Basic Structure”. – Power to amend ≠ Power to destroy.	Birth of Basic Structure Doctrine. Judiciary can strike down amendments violating basic structure.
Indira Gandhi v. Raj Narain	1975	Struck down Article 329-A(4) (39th Amendment) for violating basic structure. – Placed PM’s election beyond judicial scrutiny.	Confirmed basic structure as a judicial check on parliamentary amendments.
Minerva Mills Case	1980	Struck down parts of 42nd Amendment (1976): – Added “judicial review” and “balance between FRs & DPSP” to basic structure.	Reinforced that Constitution > Parliament.
Waman Rao Case	1981	Drew demarcation line (April 24, 1973): – Pre-Kesavananda amendments valid. – Post-Kesavananda amendments subject to judicial review.	Clarified retrospective application of basic structure doctrine.
Indra Sawhney Case	1992	Upheld 27% OBC reservation with conditions (e.g., creamy layer exclusion, 50% cap). – Added “Rule of Law” to basic structure.	Expanded list of basic features.
S.R. Bommai Case	1994	Curbed misuse of Article 356 (President’s Rule). – State policies against basic structure justify central intervention.	Applied basic structure beyond amendments (to executive actions).

Key Features of Basic Structure (As Evolved Through Cases)

1. Supremacy of the Constitution
2. Judicial Review (Minerva Mills, 1980)
3. Balance between FRs & DPSP (Minerva Mills, 1980)
4. Rule of Law (Indra Sawhney, 1992)
5. Federalism (S.R. Bommai, 1994)
6. Secularism & Democracy (Implied in Kesavananda)
7. Limited Amending Power (Kesavananda, 1973)

Comparative Analysis of Amendments vs. Basic Structure

Aspect	Parliament’s Amending Power	Basic Structure Doctrine
Scope	Can amend any part of the Constitution.	Cannot alter basic features.
Judicial Intervention	Amendments can be challenged if they violate basic structure.	Judiciary acts as guardian of basic structure.
Landmark Example	42nd Amendment (1976) tried to exclude judicial review.	Struck down in Minerva Mills (1980).

Timeline of Basic Structure Evolution

1. 1951–1967: Parliament’s absolute amending power (Shankari Prasad, Sajjan Singh).
2. 1967–1973: FRs placed beyond Parliament’s reach (Golaknath).
3. 1973: Basic Structure Doctrine born (Kesavananda).
4. Post-1973: Expanded through cases (Indira Gandhi, Minerva Mills, Waman Rao).

              Sources of Indian Constitution

S.No	Countries	Borrowed Features of Indian Constitution
1.	Australia	Concurrent list Freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse Joint-sitting of the two Houses of Parliament
2.	Canada	Federation with a strong Centre Vesting of residuary powers in the Centre Appointment of state governors by the Centre Advisory jurisdiction of the Supreme Court
3.	Ireland	Directive Principles of State Policy Nomination of members to Rajya Sabha Method of election of the president
4.	Japan	Procedure Established by Law
5.	Soviet Union (USSR, now Russia)	Fundamental duties Ideals of justice (social, economic, and political) in the Preamble
6.	UK	Parliamentary government Rule of Law Legislative procedure Single Citizenship Cabinet system Prerogative writs Parliamentary privileges Bicameralism
7.	US	Fundamental rights Independence of judiciary Judicial review Impeachment of the president Removal of Supreme Court and High Court judges Post of vice-president
8.	Germany (Weimar)	Suspension of Fundamental Rights during emergency
9.	South Africa	Procedure for amendment in the Indian Constitution Election of members of Rajya Sabha
10.	France	Republic Ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity in the Preamble