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Indus Valley Civilization
| Category | Details | |
| Introduction | The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, began around 2,500 BC in present-day Pakistan and Western India. It was one of the largest ancient urban civilizations, alongside Egypt,
Mesopotamia, and China. Excavations in the 1920s revealed the cities of Mohenjodaro and Harappa. John Marshall announced its discovery in 1924. |
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| Important Sites of IVC | Harappa (Excavated by Daya Ram Sahini, 1921) – Located on the Ravi River in Punjab (Pakistan). Findings: Sandstone statues, granaries, bullock carts. Mohenjodaro (Excavated by R.D. Banerjee, 1922) – Located on the Indus River in Larkana (Pakistan). Findings: Great Bath, granary, Bronze Dancing Girl, Pasupati seal. Lothal (Excavated by R. Rao, 1953) – Located in Gujarat. Findings: First manmade port, dockyard, rice husk. Dholavira (Excavated by R.S. Bisht, 1985) – Located in Gujarat. Findings: Water harnessing system, reservoirs. |
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| Phases of IVC | 1. Early Harappan Phase (3300–2600 BCE) – Hakra Phase, early urbanization, trade networks. 2. Mature Harappan Phase (2600–1900 BCE) – Peak urbanization (Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Lothal). 3. Late Harappan Phase (1900–1300 BCE) – Gradual decline, cities abandoned by 1700 BCE. |
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| Town Planning & Structures | – Cities followed a grid system. – Citadels for ruling class, lower towns for common people. – Burnt bricks used extensively. – Advanced drainage systems. – Fortified settlements (e.g., Dholavira, Lothal). |
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| Agriculture | – Grew wheat, barley, cotton, peas, sesame. – Earliest producers of cotton. – Used oxen for ploughing. – Irrigation likely used (evidence from Shortughai, Afghanistan). – No clear evidence of horse domestication. |
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| Economy | – Barter system (no metal money). – Trade with Mesopotamia, Central Asia. – Exported lapis lazuli, beads, textiles. – Uniform weights & measures used. |
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| Crafts | – Bronze & copper tools (from Rajasthan, Afghanistan). – Pottery, bead-making, seal-making, boat-building. – Textile production (cotton weaving). – Terracotta figurines. |
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| Institutions | – No clear evidence of rulers (possibly merchant-class rule). – No temples found (unlike Egypt/Mesopotamia). – Indus script remains undeciphered. |
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| Religion | – Worship of fertility goddess (terracotta figurines). – Pasupati (Proto-Shiva) depicted on seals. – Sacred animals (unicorn, humped bull). – Phallic & tree worship. |
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| Decline of IVC | – Possible causes: 1. Aryan invasion theory (debated). 2. Natural factors (earthquakes, river shifts, climate change). 3. Economic collapse due to trade decline. – Gradual disappearance by 1300 BCE, but cultural elements persisted. |
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Key Archaeological Sites & Findings
| Site | Location | Excavators | Key Discoveries | |||
| Harappa | Punjab (Pakistan) |
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Daya Ram Sahni (1921) |
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Granaries, sandstone statues, clay toys. | |
| Mohenjo-Daro |
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Sindh (Pakistan) |
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R.D. Banerjee (1922) |
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Great Bath, Dancing Girl statue, Pashupati Seal. |
| Lothal | Gujarat (India) |
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S.R. Rao (1954) | Dockyard, bead factory, fire altars. | ||
| Dholavira | Gujarat (India) |
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R.S. Bisht (1990) | Water reservoirs, large stadium-like structure. | ||
| Kalibangan | Rajasthan (India) |
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A. Ghosh (1953) | Ploughed field, fire altars, fortified citadel. | ||
| Rakhigarhi | Haryana (India) |
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Amarendra Nath (1997) |
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Largest IVC site (350 hectares), burial sites. |
